"Sinful Disunity"

The OPC has a very helpful article on the unity of the church.  Among many other worthwhile comments in its overall discussion of the issue, the article has this to say about denominational divisions in the church:

There exists between us and all other churches a sinful disunity that demands reconciliation in a biblical way.

Why are denominational divisions sinful?  It is because there is one Body of Christ, and the member churches of that body are to exist in formal communion with each other.  True churches of Christ deserve to be treated as true churches of Christ, and that manifests itself by existing in formal unity.

1. All saints, that are united to Jesus Christ their Head by His Spirit and by faith, have fellowship with Him in His graces, sufferings, death, resurrection, and glory: and, being united to one another in love, they have communion in each other's gifts and graces, and are obliged to the performance of such duties, public and private, as do conduce to their mutual good, both in the inward and outward man.

2. Saints by profession are bound to maintain a holy fellowship and communion in the worship of God; and in performing such other spiritual services as tend to their mutual edification; as also in relieving each other in outward things, according to their several abilities, and necessities. Which communion, as God offereth opportunity, is to be extended unto all those who, in every place, call upon the name of the Lord Jesus.  (Westminster Confession of Faith 26, "Of the Communion of Saints") 

When denominations are separated from each other, they are not treating each other as true churches of Christ.  They are not manifesting the fellowship that is necessarily implied in the relationship between true churches.

The visible unity of the Body of Christ, though not altogether destroyed, is greatly obscured by the division of the Christian church into different groups or denominations. In such denominations Christians exercise a fellowship toward each other in doctrine, worship, and order that they do not exercise toward other Christians. (OPC Form of Government, Chapter IV)

It follows from the above that denominational separation between true churches is inherently and always sinful, because it involves true churches treating each other as if they are not true churches, which is a violation of justice, in the same way as it is a violation of justice when spouses do not treat each other as spouses, or when children do not treat their parents as their parents (or vice versa), or when citizens do not treat civil magistrates as civil magistrates (or vice versa).  The only way a church can be justified in remaining separate from other churches is if it has just cause to reject the de jure legitimacy and authority of those churches.  In other words, if there is just cause to refuse to formally acknowledge a particular church as being a true church, only then do other true churches have the right (and the duty) to remain formally separated from it.  Otherwise, such separation is sinful schism of the Body of Christ.

Does your denomination have the right to exist separately from other denominations?  By doing so, it is declaring that all these other denominations lack de jure legitimacy and authority as churches (though not necessarily de facto being as churches).  If your denomination does attribute de jure legitimacy to other denominations, then its separate existence is not justified and, in order to avoid being sinfully schismatic, it must do what it can to end its separate existence immediately and to join and act in full communion with all other de jure denominations.

For more, see here, here, and here.

UPDATE 12/15/14:  Some have said that it is inappropriate for one denomination to label all others separate from it as "schismatic," but this is clearly implied in the OPC's statement that "[t]here exists between us and all other churches a sinful disunity that demands reconciliation in a biblical way."  If the division between the OPC and, say, the PCA involves "sinful disunity," then who is doing the sinning?  Whose act of remaining separate is sinful?  It must be either the OPC or the PCA, or both.  Does the OPC believe that it is acting schismatically in not seeking immediate union with the PCA?  Presumably not.  Does the OPC believe that it has errors in doctrine or practice that make it inappropriate for the PCA and other denominations to join with it?  Presumably not.  Well then, if the OPC believes that the PCA and other denominations can unite with it without sin, and that it is doing right in remaining separate from the PCA and other denominations, it follows that the OPC is accusing the PCA and the other denominations separate from the OPC of being schismatic in maintaining a separation that need not exist or in maintaining errors in doctrine and practice that create a bar to unification.  If the PCA has errors in doctrine or practice that require the OPC to remain separate from her, then the PCA is behaving schismatically in doing so.  If the PCA has no errors in doctrine and practice that require continued separation, then the OPC has a duty to unity with her right away and is behaving schismatically if it does not.  If the OPC tries to unite with the PCA and the PCA refuses, then the PCA is behaving schismatically in continuing to refuse to unite.  Therefore, however we slice it, the OPC, assuming it is acting in accordance with its own professed principles of church unity, in remaining separate from the PCA must be declaring the PCA to be schismatic.

Are Congregations Free from the Discipline of Higher Councils So Long As They Hold the Essentials of the Gospel?

"The erring and scandalous churches are in a hard condition, if they cannot be edified by the power of jurisdiction in presbyteries."
 

Samuel Rutherford, Due Right of Presbyteries, p. 379

I have been corresponding with a friend of mine regarding the issues surrounding church unity and authority.  He has been arguing against my position that when presbyterian churches are separate from each other, there is at least an implicit rejection of each others' de jure legitimacy and authority, because presbyterianism holds that the church is indivisible and does not allow for multiple de jure denominations.  He holds, instead, what I call the semi-congregationalist view that there are multiple de jure churches which are not necessarily required to be in full communion with each other at any given point in time.

One of the arguments he has recently made to support his view is that wherever the invisible church exists, the visible church also exists; and wherever the visible church exists, there is full de jure legitimacy and authority.  Here is his position stated in his own words in three different quotations:

In other words Christ has one church on earth, made up of true believers, which is manifested in the world. To this church He has granted the keys of the kingdom, of the preaching of the gospel and church discipline. Where there are true believers, these keys are possessed.

And, they are so intimately connected, the invisible and visible church, both being ways of viewing the same church, that wherever you have the invisible church, there is also the visible church. (Although, her visibility may be impaired, imperfect, and unsettled, she has all the rights and powers of the keys of the kingdom simply by virtue of being the true Church of Jesus Christ, and ought to exercise them fully.)

You are separating what must be distinguished, but never separated. That is, the invisible church and the visible church. The Reformers and their children were zealous to argue contra Rome, that wherever true faith in Christ exists, there true church power to minister and discipline also exists. The two ought to be distinguished, but cannot be separated.

Let's be clear about what my friend is saying.  He is saying that wherever there are a group of true believers who have the essentials of the gospel, the essentials of the sacraments, and the essentials of church discipline (and by "essentials" here we mean there can be significant error in faith and practice, but there is enough truth there that salvation is possible), there is there a full de jure church with full legitimacy and authority in its officers and courts.

But what about a situation where this body of Christians, this church, has fallen into significant error in doctrine or practice, or has engaged in schismatic behavior, has been disciplined by a presbytery, has not repented, and has therefore had its authority revoked by the presbytery?  Wouldn't we have in this case a church that is still a true church de facto (because we can hope that salvation is attainable and is actually attained there) and yet not a church de jure, because it has had its authority lawfully revoked by a lawful presbytery?  No, says my friend.  The church still possesses full de jure authority in this case.  It must necessarily always possess such authority so long as it continues to function as a church and hold to the essentials of the gospel, sacraments, etc.

There is a serious problem with this view.  It overthrows the presbyterian system of church government, because it fundamentally undermines the possibility and authority of church discipline beyond the congregational level.  In presbyterianism, congregations are not independent.  They are parts of larger groups of churches usually called presbyteries, which are themselves parts of larger groups of churches that function authoritatively together in synods, the highest of these synods being the ecumenical council, which consists of the universal eldership of the entire catholic church ruling over the entire church.  Presbyteries and synods have authority over the congregations under their jurisdiction, including the authority to discipline the courts and officers of these congregations when they fall into error in doctrine and practice, just as local congregational sessions have authority to discipline individual elders or members.  If necessary, such as when a member or an elder refuses to repent under lesser discipline, a congregational session can (and sometimes has the duty to) go so far as to revoke the authority of the elder or excommunicate the elder or the member.  Likewise, presbyteries and synods can, and sometimes must, go so far as to revoke the authority of particular congregational sessions.

What my friend is saying is that presbyteries and synods can't do that.  So long as the church can claim to hold to the "essentials" of doctrine, sacraments, and discipline, it can do whatever it wants--engage in any error it wants, any unlawful practice it wants, be as schismatic as it wants (such as by refusing altogether and outright to pay any attention to higher presbyteries or synods)--and it still retains full authority as a church.  Presbyteries and synods have no power to revoke their authority for these actions.  On the contrary, they have a moral obligation to recognize the full legitimacy and authority of their session and, in a presbyterian system (though semi-congregationalists deny this implication because they deny the presbyterian idea of the indivisibility of the church), to remain in full denominational unity with them with all that that entails.

This clearly fundamentally undermines the jurisdictional power of presbyteries and synods, and so guts the church of essential components of the authority Christ has given to it.  As Samuel Rutherford remarked in our introductory quotation, this inability of presbyteries and synods to edify the church by means of proper discipline over congregations leaves those churches in a hard condition, a condition where they are free of much of the accountability God requires and thus bereft of an important means of sanctification God intended for them to have.

My friend would grant that if a church ceases to be a church de facto at all, by ceasing to hold enough truth to allow the possibility of salvation to occur there, it also loses its de jure authority, and presumably the presbytery can then officially revoke its authority.  Perhaps, then, it turns out that the real problem here is latitudinarianism.  Perhaps we could say that my friend refuses to recognize the authority of presbyeries and synods to revoke the authority of an erring church which still teaches the "essentials" not because he does not grant the power of these higher councils to discipline congregational churches, but because he feels that discipline in such cases would be unjust, since such churches do not deserve discipline.  Presumably, then, members would not deserve discipline either for anything other than abandoning the "essentials" of Christianity.  I believe that this is itself a significant error, for Christ has given to his church the mandate not just to teach and enforce the "essentials" of salvation but everything that he has commanded.  (I deal with this issue more fully here.)  And we still have the characteristic semi-congregationalist error of dividing the de jure church.  If all of these de facto true churches--my friend would include Reformed, Lutheran, Baptist, and perhaps a number of other sorts of churches in this category--have full de jure legitimacy and authority, why are they sinfully dividing Christ by remaining denominationally separate from each other?  Because they have different doctrines?  But Christ never gave authority to the church to rend his body into pieces on the grounds of doctrinal differences.  There is one body, and it is always a sin to divide it.  What Christ did give authority to the church to do is to discipline erring members and churches, even to the point, if necessary, of cutting them off from the body until they repent--thus preserving the unity of the body.  Churches cut off from de jure recognition may still be true de facto churches, in which salvation can be attained.  But it is not within the purview of the formal power of the church to try to judge motives--whether, say, a baptist is rebelling against the command of God that children should be baptized with more or less innocent motives--but rather to apply discipline to actually observed outward disobedient actions.  Informally, we can exercise a judgment of charity about many people in these kinds of circumstances, but such a judgment cannot be made the basis of a formal judgment of a church court.  (Again, I have dealt with this in more detail here.)

If we are to preserve the full meaning of presbyterian church government, we cannot do otherwise than to acknowledge that erring churches are under the authority of higher councils, that they can be disciplined by those councils for errors in faith and practice or for schismatic behavior, and that denominational separation implies mutual rejection of de jure legitimacy and authority.

The Indivisibility of the Catholic Church

One way to characterize the difference between a presbyterian and a semi-congregationalist view of church government is to say that in the presbyterian view, the de jure church is inherently indivisible, whereas in the semi-congregationalist view, the de jure church is not inherently indivisible.

There is one Body of Christ in the world, and it is a sin to sever that body.  Unity between true churches is a moral mandate, not an optional thing or a thing to be preserved only in ideal circumstances.  Christians who are formally members of the church are bound in duty to be in unity with other formally recognized Christians.  De jure elders are duty-bound to function collegially as part of a universal eldership over the entire church.  When churches are separate from each other (as they are in multiple denominations), the members of one church are not in formal communion with members of the other church, and the elders and courts of one church are not united in mutually-binding councils with elders and courts in the other church.  The churches are rejecting each others' de jure legitimacy and authority.  Presbyterianism recognizes the biblical requirement of unity, and accordingly it maintains that there is an absolute duty of unity between all true de jure churches and no room for multiple de jure denominations.  In other words, presbyterianism recognizes the inherent unity and indivisibility of the catholic church.

Semi-congregationalism, on the other hand, sometimes holds that denominational unity is not a required thing, or if it is required in some sense it is only required prima facie--when the circumstances are right.  Semi-congregationalists don't hold that the de jure church is inherently and intrinsically, by nature and moral right, indivisible.  It can indeed exist, and sometimes ought to exist, in multiple de jure denominations.  This does not imply a mutual rejection of each others' de jure legitimacy and authority, because it is considered to be perfectly possible for there to be multiple, independent formal Bodies of Christ.

The catholic church is inherently indivisible in all its aspects.  The catholic church invisible is indivisible, as all elect and regenerate Christians are necessarily united in one Spirit.  The visible catholic church de facto is indivisible, as all Christians are duty-bound to maintain fellowship with each other informally to the extent that they informally recognize each other as brothers and sisters in Christ.  And the visible catholic church de jure is indivisible, as all de jure true churches have an absolute duty always to maintain formal unity with each other (as, for example, manifested in the recognized ability and at least occasional duty to come together in binding presbyteries, synods, etc.).  Presbyterianism recognizes, acknowledges, and practices this biblical unity, while semi-congregationalism, to some degree or another, gives it up.

For more, see here, here, here, and in general here.

UPDATE 9/3/13:  An illustration of the difference between presbyterianism and semi-congregationalism regarding the unity and indivisibility of the church can be seen in how they deal with doctrinal and practical errors in the church.

When a church falls into doctrinal or practical error that is contrary to the Word of God, the presbyterian response is that the catholic church will discipline that church (by means of whatever council is appropriate).  If the church does not repent, it will be cut off from the de jure catholic body, having its legitimacy and authority revoked until it repents.  Thus, the unity and indivisibility of the de jure catholic church is preserved.  There has been a schism from the body, but not a schism within the body, speaking de jure (while also recognizing that there has been a schism within the de facto Body of Christ--the de facto body retains its de facto indivisibility because there can still be informal fellowship, but the church that is cut off has lots its de jure, formal connection with the rest of the de jure church).

In a semi-congregationalist system, however, what often happens is that the churches separate from each other while still recognizing each other as true de jure churches.  Instead of cutting the erring church off from the body until it repents, the semi-congregationalist way is often to simply divide the de jure catholic church itself into pieces, thus illustrating its deviation from the biblical principle of the indivisibility and mandated unity of the church.

UPDATE 9/3/13:  Let me make one brief clarification:  It seems theoretically possible that a situation could arise in which two churches split from each other, both of which are exactly equally right and equally wrong in their convictions/practices and both which have exactly identical historical and doctrinal claims to a right to separate existence.  In this case, each of the denominations considers itself alone to be the de jure church, because it holds itself to be not guilty of doctrinal or practical error in connection with the division.  A third party, however, may perceive the errors on both sides and come to the conclusion that both have an equal claim to separate existence.  Both of the churches, from the perspective of the third party, have embraced some error that is a cause of legitimate concern to the other side, so both sides have acted rightly in trying to discipline the error of the other side, but both sides also are schismatic because they have embraced errors requiring discipline.  The ideal response to this situation would be for a party to break off and form a third denomination which preserves the truths on both sides, and if that were to happen, the third denomination would alone possess de jure authority.  However, if the perceptive third party observing what is really going on is unable to bring about the formation of a third denomination in an appropriate manner, he may be forced for the time being to join one of the two denominations, declaring them both to have de jure authority.  In this sense, we could say that it is possible for the de jure church to be divided.  However, note that this is a sinful and not an appropriate situation.  It is never, ever justifiable for one de jure church to be separate from another de jure church.  Unity is an absolute moral mandate.  That is what I mean when I say that the de jure church is indivisible:  Its essence involves unity, and so it can never be legitimate to divide it.  If one tries to divide it, one is always acting contrary to the commands of God regarding the essential nature of the church.   That is the presbyterian view.  Semi-congregationalism, on the other hand, holds that it is sometimes permissible for a de jure church to be divided from another de jure church.  That is how the two views are different (at least concerning this issue).

We Lost the Keys to the Church!

My friend Riley Fraas of the High Plains Parson blog and I have been corresponding recently regarding issues of church unity and authority.  Specifically he has been challenging my claim that when presbyterian denominations are separate from each other, this inherently involves a rejection of each others' de jure legitimacy and authority, and that it is appropriate for some denominations to reject other denominations' de jure authority.  (I have made these claims here and here, and in general here.)

Our conversations have been very productive.  I would say that Riley has provided the best arguments in response to my position that I have yet seen.  I appreciate good dialogue with those who take truth seriously, realize the need to think clearly about important issues like these, and are willing to take the time and put in the effort necessary to deal with them.

Riley's basic argument seems to be this (correct me if I'm wrong, Riley!):  The only way de jure authority can be removed from a denomination is by means of a formal declaration of an ecumenical council.  Since the sixteenth century, it has been impossible to have an ecumenical council, because it has been impossible to get all the divided groups (Rome, the various Protestant denominations, etc.) to come together to have a free and honest council.  For example, if the OPC were to invite all the various denominations to join them in such a council, most of them wouldn't accept the invitation.  Therefore, as it is impossible to have such an ecumenical council, it is impossible for any of these denominations to have their de jure authority revoked, because none of the individual denominations have the authority to do this.  Therefore, while recognizing (I think) what I've said about how there is a moral responsibility for all churches to function collegially in mutually-binding councils, Riley holds that the current separation of denominations does not necessarily evidence a mutual rejection of de jure authority on the part of all parties, for some of them may remain separated from other de jure bodies not because they are rejecting their de jure authority but because they simply cannot avoid it due to their lack of authority to call a council.

While this way of thinking has some plausibility, I think there are certain realities that it does not take into account which are its undoing:

1. If this way of thinking were correct, it would destroy nearly all the possibility of discipline in the church, at least discipline of church courts and elders.  The basic assumption it makes is that an ecumenical council exercising oversight over various denominations is only valid if all the parties under its jurisdiction actually agree to participate in it.  But this principle would wreak havoc on church discipline.  Imagine a situation where a session has fallen into heresy.  The presbytery calls a meeting to deal with the situation and discipline the session.  The rules of procedure adopted by the presbytery say that only with the consent of all the sessions can a meeting of presbytery be called, but the erring session refuses to consent to the meeting.  The presbytery, therefore, cannot call a legal meeting, and so cannot discipline the session.  They have no choice but to leave the session undisciplined and its authority intact.

And this could happen at any level.  If a presbytery went rogue, the General Assembly would not be able to call a meeting to discipline them unless they agreed to come; so if they don't agree to come, they get to escape discipline!  If an individual elder in a particular session were to fall into heresy, the session couldn't discipline him if he did not consent to come to the session meeting.  The session would be incapable of ejecting him from the session, removing his authority, because they could not call a meeting to deal with the situation.

Christ has given authority to his church to deal with these kinds of matters of discipline.  He does not intend that authority to be able to be voided merely by such trickery by those who need to be disciplined.  Christ has created an eldership whose job is to rule not only over particular congregations or presbyteries, but over the entire church.  Any part of the church can be disciplined by any higher council, going all the way up to the ecumenical council.  Therefore, we can infer that anything necessary to maintain such discipline is logically included in the command to discipline.  This must necessarily include the ability of church courts to call meetings to deal with erring parties even when those parties refuse to participate in the meetings.  Sessions can call session meetings when necessary even when individual elders refuse to come and participate, and those elders can be disciplined for refusing to participate and for other things at those meetings (if such is the purpose of the meeting).  The same goes for presbyteries dealing with erring sessions, synods dealing with erring presbyteries, national councils dealing with erring synods, and ultimately the ecumenical council dealing with erring national churches, etc.  This must be so, or the discipline Christ requires his church to maintain would be impossible.

We can also say that the need to maintain church discipline allows the church to call meetings in an extraordinary manner when the ordinary manner is ineffective.  For example, imagine that the majority of churches in a presbytery go rogue, and only one or two faithful sessions remain.  Ordinarily, a minority of sessions ought not to be able to call a meeting of the entire presbytery without the consent of the other sessions.  However, in this case, they would have the authority to do so.  Otherwise, discipline within the presbytery could not be adequately maintained.  If the one or two remaining faithful churches call a meeting of presbytery to deal with the erring majority of sessions, as this is a necessary act, it is also authoritative, and the other sessions have an obligation to participate in it.  If they refuse to show up, the remaining faithful churches can proceed without them, including disciplining them for their errors and even specifically for the sin of rejecting the authority of the presbytery by refusing to show up at that meeting.  Such a presbytery would have lawful authority even to the point of rescining the authority of those sessions and cutting them off from the presbytery, if necessary.  And this would be the case at every level, all the way from sessions to the ecumenical council.  So if the OPC were to call an ecumenical council to deal with the various errors in existing denominations, all those denominations would be morally required to come and participate in it.  If they refused to come, the OPC, even alone, could constitute the ecumenical council and engage in lawful discipline against the other denominations.

2. It is inherent in the concept of delegated authority that such authority only extends to that for which it was delegated.  Any actions beyond this lack authority.  This fact allows the decisions of human courts to lawfully be declared null and void if they go beyond the lawful authority delegated to them--which would happen if a court violated the rules of the authority superior to it, or even if it proceeded beyond the limits of the jurisdiction delegated to it.

One implication of this is that the highest human court in any institution can be overruled by a direct appeal to the authority of God, who is the ultimate moral authority of the universe and over all merely human authorities.  This is, of course, evident from many scriptural examples, such as the refusals of Daniel and the apostles to obey lawful human courts when they commanded disobedience to God.

We should note, however, that such direct extraordinary appeals to God directly need to be undertaken only in the light of all the rules of the Bible for dealing with these sorts of things.  One such rule is that one cannot appeal directly to God without first going through proper, ordinary human channels.  Matthew 18:15-20, for example, articulates this.  When a fellow church members sins, one cannot simply go straight to God's Word, declare the sin an excommunicatable offense based on that, and then decide personally that the sinning individual is excommunicated.  One must go through the proper channels--go to him personally (if it is a personal offense), take two or three witnesses, go to the church, etc.  Taking into account the full picture of presbyterian church government presented in the Bible, this would also involve allowing appeals to higher church councils, potentially going all the way up to the ecumenical council.  But if the highest human council refuses to deal with the discipline issue, it may be permissible for the individual to appeal directly to God and declare the opinion of that highest human council overturned by his Word, and thus treat the person as excommunicated.

I say, it may be permissible, because other factors are involved as well.  God commands us to seek the peace and unity of the church, and so we ought not to overrule regular authorities unless it is absolutely necessary to avoid sin, because otherwise we unnecessarily disturb the regular order, peace, stability, and unity of the church.  Going along with this, we must give the benefit of the doubt to the human councils.  In particular discipline cases, there is often involved some degree of subjectivity as to how a certain situation should best be handled.  We should always defer to the wisdom of the established councils when possible to do so.  In practice, I think this means that it will probably almost never be the case that we should appeal beyond the highest human council in cases of individual discipline.  The need to do this is more likely to occur in matters of doctrine or practice, or matters of discipline that touch especially on these (such as if a session were to appoint a female minister, as such an act is not only an individual issue but could call into question the doctrinal commitments of the entire denomination if allowed to go undisciplined--yet even here, we must take things on a case-by-case basis and only do what is truly necessary).

Another biblical rule that needs to be kept in mind when we consider overruling human councils is found in Romans 13:1-2:  "Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God: the powers that be are ordained of God.  Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God: and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation."  If a human power is, de facto, funtioning in a position of necessary, God-ordained authority, that human power is said by God to have de jure status.  This is why Daniel and the apostles submitted, respectively, to the governments of Babylon and Rome.  The rulers of Babylon and Rome were not qualified to rule according to biblical qualifications for civil office.  But, nevertheless, they had de jure authority because they had been put in a place of authority by the providence of God.  (With regard to civil rulers, but having application, I think, to other areas of authority as well, see here and here for more argumentation on this immediate point.)  Note that this does not imply that tyrants cannot be at times resisted, and even overthrown.  If, in God's providence, it becomes possible to lawfully, reasonably, ethically, etc., set up a more adequate government, this is not off the table.  However, what this does imply is that the current government cannot be declared illegitimate (on the basis of being unlawful, lacking biblical qualifications, etc.) until an alternative option is available in the providence of God.

Putting these points together, we can say that it is possible to overrule even the highest human authorities by appealing directly to God and his Word, so long as this is done in light of the proper rules of God's Word.  Applying this to our current topic of discussion, it means that church members and churches are not stuck, having to work only through ordinary means and ordinarily proper channels in carrying out their necessary work helping to preserve the unity, peace, and purity of the church.  If an ecumenical council cannot be called in an ordinary fashion, this does not mean the church can do nothing to discipline erring denominations.  In order to fulfill their necessary duty to guard the purity and unity of the church, an appeal could possibly be made, if appropriate, directly to Christ in order to call a needed ecumenical council, even if many of the existing denominations refuse to cooperate with or participate in such a council.  The council would still be lawful, and could lawfully discipline these non-cooperating denominations.

To give a specific illustration of the above principles, we can go back to our earlier scenario where the OPC wants to call an ecumenical council for the sake of the unity and purity of the catholic church.  Contrary to Riley's point of view, we see that the OPC could indeed call such a council, and it would be lawful and could lawfully exact ecumenical discipline, even if other denominations refuse to cooperate or participate in it.

One more issue needs to be addressed before we conclude:  In the history of denominational splits since the sixteenth century, many major splits among Protestants (and between Protestants and Rome on the Protestant side) have not occurred by means of formal councils rejecting certain churches.  Rather, many times, what happened was simply that denominations drifted apart, failing to stay in adequate contact and running off in their own directions.  This is especially the case among the Reformed churches.  So this raises a question:  Are splits produced in this sort of way lawful and legitimate, or does an actual council need to be called to reject the de jure authority of some denomination (even if that council is called in an extraordinary way, as outlined above)?  The FPCS, for example, has never called a council and formally rejected the Church of England, or the OPC, but their continuing willing separation from these bodies implies a rejection of their de jure authority.  Can this be just?

Yes, I think it can be, and in fact is with regard to the FPCS.  In these sorts of cases, I think what we can say is that although it would have been better for the separations to have occurred more formally and as regularly as possible, rather than simply through historical processes of different churches going different pathways and more implicit rejections, yet as the separations have in fact occurred already, the latter less formal historical processes have, in effect, amounted to the functional equivalent of a more formal rejection.  It would be a failure to acknowledge history and current reality to try now to go back and call a council of all these groups and only then conclude with a formal rejection of erring groups if the council fails.  The different existing denominations have already established themselves as separate bodies with clear and conclusive doctrinal and practical positions.  None of them are going to be willing to join in a mutually-binding council with the others.  If they were to do so for the sake of formality, they would all go in intending firmly (and communicating clearly to their membership that they are intending firmly) to preserve their own doctrinal testimonies, so the council would be something of a sham, a mere formality where everyone already knows the conclusion.  The FPCS could call such a council, but the OPC and the Church of England wouldn't come, and if they did come and vote on, say, exclusive psalmody, they would all go their own already-established ways after the council was over no matter which way the council decided.  Since this outcome is already known, there is no reason not to accept the actual state of reality and embrace the conclusion history has already delivered--namely, that the groups are separated and reject each others' de jure authority.  I would say that if we could go back in time, it would have been better to have divided in a more regular, formal way.  But, as we can't go back in time, I don't think it makes sense to try to go that route now.  The state of separation and mutual rejection of authority already exists, and it makes no sense to act as if it doesn't and do what would have been sensible in the 1680s.  I see no reason to think that it is unlawful to proceed in this way, seeing that the conclusions such a council would be called to reach have already been reached and it would be mere pretense to call such a council under these circumstances.  Conversations between already-separated churches should proceed not by undoing important separations already accomplished, but by means of ongoing dialogue between the already-separated bodies.

I must conclude, then, that Riley's way of construing the current situation is not adequate.  In fact, modern churches are not stuck, unable to fulfill their duty to seek the unity and purity of the church because of the unwillingness of erring bodies.  Christ has commanded the eldership of his church to keep discipline in his church, and he has accordingly given them the power to do that.  That, therefore, is what they should do.  Therefore, we ought to continue to say that when denominations claiming to be presbyterian are divided, there are only three possibilities:  1.  They are rejecting each others' de jure authority.  2. They have decided to be unjust by refusing to take seriously the authority of the other bodies, or by refusing to do what they can and ought to do to seek the unity and purity of the whole church.  3. They have abandoned pure presbyterian church government.

UPDATE 9/9/13:  Another argument for the position taken in this blog post can be made based on the fact that elders and church courts have an intrinsic right and duty to function collegially in mutually-binding councils.  If this is the case, then even if the majority part of a governing body refuses to call a meeting to deal with errors and divisions, the smaller part has the authority to call the meeting and require the larger part to attend it on the grounds that the smaller part, as well as the larger part, has a right and a duty to function collegially with all the church courts in common governing councils in order to do the work of the church.  Since this is an intrinsic right, the larger part has an obligation to grant it to the smaller part.  Therefore, when the smaller part calls a council, the council is obligatory and therefore authoritative even if the larger part refuses to participate in it.

The Presbyterian Unity of the Church

Let's take a look (particularly focusing on the New Testament) at some fundamental aspects of how the Bible portrays the nature and unity of the visible church.

1. There is one body.

First of all, there is only one church, which is the Body of Christ.

I therefore, the prisoner of the Lord, beseech you that ye walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are called, with all lowliness and meekness, with longsuffering, forbearing one another in love; endeavouring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. There is one body, and one Spirit, even as ye are called in one hope of your calling; one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all.  (Ephesians 4:1-6)

The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ? For we being many are one bread, and one body: for we are all partakers of that one bread.  (1 Corinthians 10:16-17)

The one church is to be united and not divided.  Divisions are evil, as they split the Body of Christ.

Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and that there be no divisions among you; but that ye be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment. For it hath been declared unto me of you, my brethren, by them which are of the house of Chloe, that there are contentions among you. Now this I say, that every one of you saith, I am of Paul; and I of Apollos; and I of Cephas; and I of Christ. Is Christ divided? was Paul crucified for you? or were ye baptized in the name of Paul?  (1 Corinthians 1:10-13)

And I, brethren, could not speak unto you as unto spiritual, but as unto carnal, even as unto babes in Christ. I have fed you with milk, and not with meat: for hitherto ye were not able to bear it, neither yet now are ye able. For ye are yet carnal: for whereas there is among you envying, and strife, and divisions, are ye not carnal, and walk as men? For while one saith, I am of Paul; and another, I am of Apollos; are ye not carnal?  (1 Corinthians 3:1-4)

Notice also that the unity of the church is to be found in agreement in doctrine and practice, as everyone holds to the teaching of the apostles (Acts 2:42).

2. The one Body of Christ consists of a variety of individual members who are all parts of it and have concern for the whole.

As in a physical body, the members are all bound up with each other.  They are not independent, but are parts of the larger whole.  Their care should not just be for themselves, but for each other, for the whole body.  All the different parts of the body have particular roles to play and they all need each other.

For as the body is one, and hath many members, and all the members of that one body, being many, are one body: so also is Christ. For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles, whether we be bond or free; and have been all made to drink into one Spirit. For the body is not one member, but many. If the foot shall say, Because I am not the hand, I am not of the body; is it therefore not of the body? And if the ear shall say, Because I am not the eye, I am not of the body; is it therefore not of the body? If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing? If the whole were hearing, where were the smelling? But now hath God set the members every one of them in the body, as it hath pleased him. And if they were all one member, where were the body? But now are they many members, yet but one body. And the eye cannot say unto the hand, I have no need of thee: nor again the head to the feet, I have no need of you. Nay, much more those members of the body, which seem to be more feeble, are necessary: And those members of the body, which we think to be less honourable, upon these we bestow more abundant honour; and our uncomely parts have more abundant comeliness. For our comely parts have no need: but God hath tempered the body together, having given more abundant honour to that part which lacked. That there should be no schism in the body; but that the members should have the same care one for another. And whether one member suffer, all the members suffer with it; or one member be honoured, all the members rejoice with it. Now ye are the body of Christ, and members in particular.  (1 Corinthians 12:12-27)

3. The Holy Spirit has given gifts to the members of the church, and these gifts are to be used in communion with the whole body and for its edification.

These spiritual gifts are diverse according to the diversity of the members of the church, and they are all to be used in conjunction to complement each other for the good of the whole body.

Now concerning spiritual gifts, brethren, I would not have you ignorant. Ye know that ye were Gentiles, carried away unto these dumb idols, even as ye were led. Wherefore I give you to understand, that no man speaking by the Spirit of God calleth Jesus accursed: and that no man can say that Jesus is the Lord, but by the Holy Ghost. Now there are diversities of gifts, but the same Spirit. And there are differences of administrations, but the same Lord. And there are diversities of operations, but it is the same God which worketh all in all. But the manifestation of the Spirit is given to every man to profit withal. For to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom; to another the word of knowledge by the same Spirit; To another faith by the same Spirit; to another the gifts of healing by the same Spirit; To another the working of miracles; to another prophecy; to another discerning of spirits; to another divers kinds of tongues; to another the interpretation of tongues: But all these worketh that one and the selfsame Spirit, dividing to every man severally as he will. . . . Now ye are the body of Christ, and members in particular. And God hath set some in the church, first apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers, after that miracles, then gifts of healings, helps, governments, diversities of tongues. Are all apostles? are all prophets? are all teachers? are all workers of miracles? Have all the gifts of healing? do all speak with tongues? do all interpret?  (1 Corinthians 12:1-11, 27-30)

There is one body, and one Spirit, even as ye are called in one hope of your calling; One Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all. But unto every one of us is given grace according to the measure of the gift of Christ. Wherefore he saith, When he ascended up on high, he led captivity captive, and gave gifts unto men. (Now that he ascended, what is it but that he also descended first into the lower parts of the earth? He that descended is the same also that ascended up far above all heavens, that he might fill all things.) And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers; For the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ: Till we all come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ: That we henceforth be no more children, tossed to and fro, and carried about with every wind of doctrine, by the sleight of men, and cunning craftiness, whereby they lie in wait to deceive; but speaking the truth in love, may grow up into him in all things, which is the head, even Christ: From whom the whole body fitly joined together and compacted by that which every joint supplieth, according to the effectual working in the measure of every part, maketh increase of the body unto the edifying of itself in love.  (Ephesians 4:4-16)

4. Among these spiritual gifts are particular gifts that prepare members of the church to fulfill certain established offices in the church--such as the temporary offices of apostle and prophet, as well as the permanent offices of elder and deacon.

The word deacon means "servant."  The office of deacon was established to contribute an office not of rule or teaching, but of service to the church.

And in those days, when the number of the disciples was multiplied, there arose a murmuring of the Grecians against the Hebrews, because their widows were neglected in the daily ministration. Then the twelve called the multitude of the disciples unto them, and said, It is not reason that we should leave the word of God, and serve tables. Wherefore, brethren, look ye out among you seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost and wisdom, whom we may appoint over this business. But we will give ourselves continually to prayer, and to the ministry of the word. And the saying pleased the whole multitude: and they chose Stephen, a man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost, and Philip, and Prochorus, and Nicanor, and Timon, and Parmenas, and Nicolas a proselyte of Antioch: Whom they set before the apostles: and when they had prayed, they laid their hands on them. And the word of God increased; and the number of the disciples multiplied in Jerusalem greatly; and a great company of the priests were obedient to the faith.  (Acts 6:1-7)

Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to much wine, not greedy of filthy lucre; holding the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience. And let these also first be proved; then let them use the office of a deacon, being found blameless. Even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children and their own houses well. For they that have used the office of a deacon well purchase to themselves a good degree, and great boldness in the faith which is in Christ Jesus.  (1 Timothy 3:8-13)

We saw from the lists of spiritual gifts in the previous section that gifts of rule, administration, and teaching have been given to the church.  In the New Testament church, the first place in terms of rule and teaching is given to the apostles.  But secondarily, God has also appointed elders or bishops in the church to rule and to teach.  As the apostles' office was temporary, the elders were to take the first place on earth as rulers and teachers of the church after their departure, always subject to the words of the apostles recorded in Scripture, as these are the words of Christ himself who has given spiritual gifts to men.

This is a true saying, if a man desire the office of a bishop, he desireth a good work. A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, of good behaviour, given to hospitality, apt to teach; Not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of filthy lucre; but patient, not a brawler, not covetous; One that ruleth well his own house, having his children in subjection with all gravity; (For if a man know not how to rule his own house, how shall he take care of the church of God?) Not a novice, lest being lifted up with pride he fall into the condemnation of the devil. Moreover he must have a good report of them which are without; lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil.  (1 Timothy 3:1-3)

For this cause left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain elders in every city, as I had appointed thee: If any be blameless, the husband of one wife, having faithful children not accused of riot or unruly. For a bishop must be blameless, as the steward of God; not selfwilled, not soon angry, not given to wine, no striker, not given to filthy lucre; But a lover of hospitality, a lover of good men, sober, just, holy, temperate; holding fast the faithful word as he hath been taught, that he may be able by sound doctrine both to exhort and to convince the gainsayers.  (Titus 1:5-9)

Not all elders have exactly the same gifts.  Some are called more especially to teach in the church as well as to rule:  "Let the elders that rule well be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in the word and doctrine" (1 Timothy 5:17).

The role of elders in the church is to rule over and shepherd the church, to teach sound doctrine and refute false doctrine, and to exercise spiritual discipline over the church.  The church is in danger of evil doctrines, practices, and divisions entering into its life, and the job of elders is to use teaching and spiritual discipline to prevent these and to nourish the body and help it grow properly.

When Jesus came into the coasts of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? And they said, Some say that thou art John the Baptist: some, Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets. He saith unto them, But whom say ye that I am? And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.  (Matthew 16:13-19)

Then the same day at evening, being the first day of the week, when the doors were shut where the disciples were assembled for fear of the Jews, came Jesus and stood in the midst, and saith unto them, Peace be unto you. And when he had so said, he shewed unto them his hands and his side. Then were the disciples glad, when they saw the Lord. Then said Jesus to them again, Peace be unto you: as my Father hath sent me, even so send I you. And when he had said this, he breathed on them, and saith unto them, Receive ye the Holy Ghost: Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them; and whose soever sins ye retain, they are retained.  (John 20:19-23)

Moreover if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone: if he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother. But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established. And if he shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church: but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man and a publican. Verily I say unto you, Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven. Again I say unto you, That if two of you shall agree on earth as touching any thing that they shall ask, it shall be done for them of my Father which is in heaven. For where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them.  (Matthew 18:15-20)

Obey them that have the rule over you, and submit yourselves: for they watch for your souls, as they that must give account, that they may do it with joy, and not with grief: for that is unprofitable for you.  (Hebrews 13:17)

A man that is an heretick after the first and second admonition reject; knowing that he that is such is subverted, and sinneth, being condemned of himself.  (Titus 3:10-11)

Now we command you, brethren, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye withdraw yourselves from every brother that walketh disorderly, and not after the tradition which he received of us. . . . And if any man obey not our word by this epistle, note that man, and have no company with him, that he may be ashamed. Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother.  (2 Thessalonians 3:6, 14-15)

And we beseech you, brethren, to know them which labour among you, and are over you in the Lord, and admonish you; and to esteem them very highly in love for their work's sake. And be at peace among yourselves.  (1 Thessalonians 5:12-13)

It is reported commonly that there is fornication among you, and such fornication as is not so much as named among the Gentiles, that one should have his father's wife. And ye are puffed up, and have not rather mourned, that he that hath done this deed might be taken away from among you. For I verily, as absent in body, but present in spirit, have judged already, as though I were present, concerning him that hath so done this deed, In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, when ye are gathered together, and my spirit, with the power of our Lord Jesus Christ, To deliver such an one unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus. Your glorying is not good. Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump? Purge out therefore the old leaven, that ye may be a new lump, as ye are unleavened. For even Christ our passover is sacrificed for us: Therefore let us keep the feast, not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wickedness; but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth. I wrote unto you in an epistle not to company with fornicators: Yet not altogether with the fornicators of this world, or with the covetous, or extortioners, or with idolaters; for then must ye needs go out of the world. But now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolator, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner; with such an one no not to eat. For what have I to do to judge them also that are without? do not ye judge them that are within? But them that are without God judgeth. Therefore put away from among yourselves that wicked person.  (1 Corinthians 5:1-13)

Elders are not to rule independently from each other.  Just as the individual members of the church are to use their gifts in conjunction with each other for the edification of the whole body, so elders are to function interdependently and complementarily, joining together as a ruling body to exercise oversight over the church.  Each elder is to function as a part of the whole ruling body, and he is subject to the whole, even to being disciplined in cases of sin or error:  "Against an elder receive not an accusation, but before two or three witnesses. Them that sin rebuke before all, that others also may fear" (1 Timothy 5:19-20).

A good illustration of the unity of the church in the early days of the church is found in Acts 2:41-47:

Then they that gladly received his word were baptized: and the same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls. And they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers. And fear came upon every soul: and many wonders and signs were done by the apostles. And all that believed were together, and had all things common; and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, praising God, and having favour with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved.

5. As the church grew and spread throughout the world, it became necessary for logistical reasons to sub-divide the church into smaller groupings, particularly local congregations, and yet the unity of the one Body of Christ remained the same.

Whereas at the beginning there were simply the believers in Jerusalem, as recorded in the Book of Acts, later on, after the church had spread throughout the world due to persecutions and the preaching of the gospel, individual congregations in different places were developed, such as the church in Corinth, the church in Ephesus, the church in Antioch, the church in Rome, etc.  Each local congregation formed its own mini-body, with a diversity of members sharing their spiritual gifts with each other--as we see, for example, in 1 Corinthians 14, where Paul gives instructions to the local congregation in Corinth regarding their gatherings and the proper use of spiritual gifts in those gatherings.

However, there was still only one Body of Christ in unity throughout the world.  The local congregations were to continue to share the fellowship of the whole body with one another.

Salute the brethren which are in Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the church which is in his house. And when this epistle is read among you, cause that it be read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and that ye likewise read the epistle from Laodicea.  (Colossians 4:15-16)

Here we have the Apostle Paul writing letters to different churches and telling these churches to recognize each other in fellowship and share their apostolic letters with one another.

And in these days came prophets from Jerusalem unto Antioch. And there stood up one of them named Agabus, and signified by the Spirit that there should be great dearth throughout all the world: which came to pass in the days of Claudius Caesar. Then the disciples, every man according to his ability, determined to send relief unto the brethren which dwelt in Judaea: Which also they did, and sent it to the elders by the hands of Barnabas and Saul.  (Acts 11:27-30)

But now I go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the saints. For it hath pleased them of Macedonia and Achaia to make a certain contribution for the poor saints which are at Jerusalem. It hath pleased them verily; and their debtors they are. For if the Gentiles have been made partakers of their spiritual things, their duty is also to minister unto them in carnal things. When therefore I have performed this, and have sealed to them this fruit, I will come by you into Spain. And I am sure that, when I come unto you, I shall come in the fulness of the blessing of the gospel of Christ.  (Romans 15:25-29)

Here we have examples of the care the saints are to have for the whole body of which they are a part being manifested between congregations in different areas.

But if any man seem to be contentious, we have no such custom, neither the churches of God.  (1 Corinthians 11:16)

The Apostle Paul's comment here comes at the end of his instructions to the Corinthian church regarding head coverings in the worship of the church.  He states that if anyone wants to argue about the teaching he has delivered to the church as an apostle (see 11:2), that person should be aware that there is no other custom in the universal church.  The churches throughout the world are united in the doctrine of the apostles.

6. As with the other aspects of the church, so with the oversight of the church.  For logistical purposes, the rulers and official teachers of the church are sub-divided into distinct groupings to serve the various congregations, and yet they remain unified as part of a governing body that has rule and oversight over the entire worldwide church.

For this cause left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain elders in every city, as I had appointed thee.  (Titus 1:5)

And we sailed thence, and came the next day over against Chios; and the next day we arrived at Samos, and tarried at Trogyllium; and the next day we came to Miletus. For Paul had determined to sail by Ephesus, because he would not spend the time in Asia: for he hasted, if it were possible for him, to be at Jerusalem the day of Pentecost. And from Miletus he sent to Ephesus, and called the elders of the church.  (Acts 20:15-17)

So there are elders appointed in each city, over the diverse congregations.  These elders, in their immediate office, are given charge over particular congregations or smaller groupings of Christians.

However, as we recall, the eldership was given to the church as a whole in order to preserve the whole body from heresy, schism, sin, etc.  It is evident that the elders, say, of Corinth, functioning specifically in their role as elders of Corinth, would not be able to exercise rule over the entire church.  And yet the entire church requires the exercise of oversight over the whole body.  If the elders and church of Antioch, for example, were to go astray, this would not be a matter affecting only them.  The entire Body of Christ would be concerned in a part of itself becoming infected with evil, and it must be the job of the eldership of the church to discipline the offending congregation in order to preserve the peace and purity of the entire church; just as when a particular elder in a congregation goes astray, he must be disciplined by the larger body of elders of which he is a part (1 Timothy 5:19-20).  We can see, therefore, that just as a body of elders in a local area have oversight over the individual elders making up that body, so the same must hold for the church throughout the world:  Individual elders and groups of elders must be accountable to the larger body of elders that is over the entire church.  Only then is the unity of the church preserved, along with the unity of its spiritual gifts, including rule, that are to be exercised within the context of the entire body and for the benefit of the whole body, despite any sub-divisions made in that body for purely logistical purposes.

The above is inferable from principles already articulated, but it is also confirmed by direct examples.

These things command and teach. Let no man despise thy youth; but be thou an example of the believers, in word, in conversation, in charity, in spirit, in faith, in purity. Till I come, give attendance to reading, to exhortation, to doctrine. Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee by prophecy, with the laying on of the hands of the presbytery. Meditate upon these things; give thyself wholly to them; that thy profiting may appear to all. Take heed unto thyself, and unto the doctrine; continue in them: for in doing this thou shalt both save thyself, and them that hear thee.  (1 Timothy 4:11-16)

Here we have the Apostle Paul exhorting Timothy, an evangelist sent by Paul to aid the churches, to carry out his responsibilities--which responsibilities he received from Christ through the "laying on of the hands of the presbytery [that is, the body of elders]."  The body of elders as a whole gave to Timothy his charge as an evangelist--and they also have the power to take it away if necessary.

Our greatest example of the elders of particular congregations coming together in a joint body to exercise rule over the entire church is the occasion of the Jerusalem Council:

And certain men which came down from Judaea taught the brethren, and said, Except ye be circumcised after the manner of Moses, ye cannot be saved. When therefore Paul and Barnabas had no small dissension and disputation with them, they determined that Paul and Barnabas, and certain other of them, should go up to Jerusalem unto the apostles and elders about this question. And being brought on their way by the church, they passed through Phenice and Samaria, declaring the conversion of the Gentiles: and they caused great joy unto all the brethren. And when they were come to Jerusalem, they were received of the church, and of the apostles and elders, and they declared all things that God had done with them. But there rose up certain of the sect of the Pharisees which believed, saying, That it was needful to circumcise them, and to command them to keep the law of Moses. And the apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter. . . . Then pleased it the apostles and elders with the whole church, to send chosen men of their own company to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas; namely, Judas surnamed Barsabas and Silas, chief men among the brethren: And they wrote letters by them after this manner; The apostles and elders and brethren send greeting unto the brethren which are of the Gentiles in Antioch and Syria and Cilicia. Forasmuch as we have heard, that certain which went out from us have troubled you with words, subverting your souls, saying, Ye must be circumcised, and keep the law: to whom we gave no such commandment: It seemed good unto us, being assembled with one accord, to send chosen men unto you with our beloved Barnabas and Paul, men that have hazarded their lives for the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. We have sent therefore Judas and Silas, who shall also tell you the same things by mouth. For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things; That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye well. So when they were dismissed, they came to Antioch: and when they had gathered the multitude together, they delivered the epistle: Which when they had read, they rejoiced for the consolation. And Judas and Silas, being prophets also themselves, exhorted the brethren with many words, and confirmed them. And after they had tarried there a space, they were let go in peace from the brethren unto the apostles. Notwithstanding it pleased Silas to abide there still. Paul also and Barnabas continued in Antioch, teaching and preaching the word of the Lord, with many others also.  (Acts 15:1-6, 22-35)

Here we have a situation where a certain issue was troubling one of the local churches, the church in Antioch.  Unable to resolve the issue there alone, the church in Antioch sends representatives to Jerusalem to meet there with other elders from the wider church in order to discuss the matter and come to a resolution.  This general council comes to a conclusion, and that conclusion is then binding on all the churches: "And as they went through the cities, they delivered them the decrees for to keep, that were ordained of the apostles and elders which were at Jerusalem. And so were the churches established in the faith, and increased in number daily" (Acts 16:4-5).

Notice that although the apostles were involved in this council, yet they did not exercise their immediate apostolic authority alone in it.  Instead, they joined in a larger council with the other elders of the particular churches, and the entire church came to a conciliar decision.  In doing this, the council left us an example to follow even after the apostles had left the scene.  When matters concerning the entire church cannot be adequately resolved by one local body, the elders can join together in a larger governing body, even up to the entire eldership over the universal church, to decide the matter; and so long as their decision is in accord with the Word of God (which includes the teaching of the apostles, thus making them, in a sense, present in spirit at every such council), it is binding.  This is perfectly logical, considering what we have seen regarding the biblical teaching on the unity of the one church of Christ throughout the world.  If such a council were not possible, there would be no way for the elders to govern the entire church.  The universal church as a whole would be without an eldership, contrary to Christ's gift to the entire church of the spiritual gift of leadership to be exercised within the context of and for the benefit of the entire body.

To sum up everything we have seen thus far, what we have is one church, one Body of Christ, throughout the world.  This one body is made up of many diverse members, each of whom is given a different set of spiritual gifts to use within the context of and for the benefit of the entire church.  Among these spiritual gifts are gifts of service, as well as gifts of teaching and leadership, which are to be exercised in permanent offices within the church.  As the church has grown in size, it has become necessary for logistical purposes to sub-divide the church, its members, and its officers into smaller local groupings, without impairing the essential worldwide unity of the entire church.  That unity is preserved within particular congregations as members use their spiritual gifts to build each other up and elders teach and rule over the church, and it is also preserved between local bodies throughout the world as members care for each other and fellowship with each other throughout the world as opportunity arises and as the elders over particular local bodies come together in larger governing assemblies to exercise rule over the wider church.

7. This biblical picture we have seen of the nature and unity of the church has been called the presbyterian view of the church and church government, and it has been historically the view held by the Reformed churches.

1. The catholic or universal Church which is invisible, consists of the whole number of the elect, that have been, are, or shall be gathered into one, under Christ the Head thereof; and is the spouse, the body, the fulness of Him that filleth all in all.

2. The visible Church, which is also catholic or universal under the Gospel (not confined to one nation as before under the law), consists of all those throughout the world that profess the true religion; and of their children: and is the kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ, the house and family of God, out of which there is no ordinary possibility of salvation.

3. Unto this catholic visible Church Christ hath given the ministry, oracles, and ordinances of God, for the gathering and perfecting of the saints, in this life, to the end of the world: and doth by His own presence and Spirit, according to His promise, make them effectual thereunto.  (Westminster Confession of Faith 25:1-3)

1. For the better government, and further edification of the Church, there ought to be such assemblies as are commonly called synods or councils.

3. It belongeth to synods and councils, ministerially to determine controversies of faith and cases of conscience, to set down rules and directions for the better ordering of the public worship of God, and government of His Church; to receive complaints in cases of maladministration, and authoritatively to determine the same: which decrees and determinations, if consonant to the Word of God, are to be received with reverence and submission; not only for their agreement with the Word, but also for the power whereby they are made, as being an ordinance of God appointed thereunto in His Word.  (WCF 31:1, 3) 

THERE is one general church visible, held forth in the New Testament.

The ministry, oracles, and ordinances of the New Testament, are given by Jesus Christ to the general church visible, for the gathering and perfecting of it in this life, until his second coming.

Particular visible churches, members of the general church, are also held forth in the New Testament. Particular churches in the primitive times were made up of visible saints, viz. of such as, being of age, professed faith in Christ, and obedience unto Christ, according to the rules of faith and life taught by Christ and his apostles; and of their children. . . .

CHRIST hath instituted a government, and governors ecclesiastical in the church: to that purpose, the apostles did immediately receive the keys from the hand of Jesus Christ, and did use and exercise them in all the churches of the world upon all occasions.

And Christ hath since continually furnished some in his church with gifts of government, and with commission to execute the same, when called thereunto.

It is lawful, and agreeable to the word of God, that the church be governed by several sorts of assemblies, which are congregational, classical, and synodical.

It is lawful, and agreeable to the word of God, that the several assemblies before mentioned have power to convent, and call before them, any person within their several bounds, whom the ecclesiastical business which is before them doth concern. They have power to hear and determine such causes and differences as do orderly come before them. It is lawful, and agreeable to the word of God, that all the said assemblies have some power to dispense church-censures. . . .

The scripture doth hold out another sort of assemblies for the government of the church, beside classical and congregational, all which we call Synodical. Pastors and teachers, and other church-governors, (as also other fit persons, when it shall be deemed expedient,) are members of those assemblies which we call Synodical, where they have a lawful calling thereunto. Synodical assemblies may lawfully be of several sorts, as provincial, national, and oecumenical. . . .

IT is lawful and expedient that there be fixed congregations, that is, a certain company of Christians to meet in one assembly ordinarily for publick worship. When believers multiply to such a number, that they cannot conveniently meet in one place, it is lawful and expedient that they should be divided into distinct and fixed congregations, for the better administration of such ordinances as belong unto them, and the discharge of mutual duties. 

The ordinary way of dividing Christians into distinct congregations, and most expedient for edification, is by the respective bounds of their dwellings.  (Form of Presbyterial Church-Government)

We believe and confess one single catholic or universal church-- a holy congregation and gathering of true Christian believers, awaiting their entire salvation in Jesus Christ being washed by his blood, and sanctified and sealed by the Holy Spirit. . . .

And so this holy church is not confined, bound, or limited to a certain place or certain persons. But it is spread and dispersed throughout the entire world, though still joined and united in heart and will, in one and the same Spirit, by the power of faith.  (Belgic Confession, Article 27)

We believe that since this holy assembly and congregation is the gathering of those who are saved and there is no salvation apart from it, no one ought to withdraw from it, content to be by himself, regardless of his status or condition.

But all people are obliged to join and unite with it, keeping the unity of the church by submitting to its instruction and discipline, by bending their necks under the yoke of Jesus Christ, and by serving to build up one another, according to the gifts God has given them as members of each other in the same body.

And to preserve this unity more effectively, it is the duty of all believers, according to God's Word, to separate themselves from those who do not belong to the church, in order to join this assembly wherever God has established it, even if civil authorities and royal decrees forbid and death and physical punishment result.

And so, all who withdraw from the church or do not join it act contrary to God's ordinance.  (BC, Article 28)

We believe that this true church ought to be governed according to the spiritual order that our Lord has taught us in his Word. There should be ministers or pastors to preach the Word of God and adminster the sacraments. There should also be elders and deacons, along with the pastors, to make up the council of the church. (BC, Article 30)

We believe that ministers of the Word of God, elders, and deacons ought to be chosen to their offices by a legitimate election of the church, with prayer in the name of the Lord, and in good order, as the Word of God teaches.

So everyone must be careful not to push himself forward improperly, but he must wait for God's call, so that he may be assured of his calling and be certain that he is chosen by the Lord.

As for the ministers of the Word, they all have the same power and authority, no matter where they may be, since they are all servants of Jesus Christ, the only universal bishop, and the only head of the church.  (BC, Article 31)

8. A few important practical implications that follow from the above doctrine of the church that are particularly relevant for the Reformed churches in this day and age.

As we have seen, the church of Christ is one through all the world.  Its unity is not merely invisible, but visible, as members of the church unite in formal, visible fellowship with each other under the formal, visible eldership of the church.  And since the church is one through all the world, this formal, visible unity does not stop at local congregations, or even regional presbyteries, but must be extended throughout the whole church in all the world.  Members of the church, as opportunity arises, must exercise their spiritual gifts not only for the benefit of their particular local congregations, but for the whole body of the church everywhere.  And elders, in particular, are not to exercise their teaching and ruling functions only with regard to particular congregations, but in the context of and for the benefit of the entire universal, catholic church.

If we take seriously the biblical picture of the unity of the one catholic church and its government, we cannot take lightly denominational separation.  There is absolutely no room in this biblical picture of the church for multiple denominations that recognize each others' de jure auhority but are not united to each other in formal fellowship under a common government or eldership.  When Presbyterian denominations are separated from each other, the necessary implication is that they are rejecting each others' de jure authority and legitimacy as churches (though not necessarily their de facto existence as churches) and accusing each other of the sin of schism, of causing division in the Body of Christ, by separating themselves through various means from the entire catholic body.

We can also see from the above principles that the unity of the church cannot be sought by uniting in formal unity by means of agreeing to disagree on some of the doctrines delivered by the apostles.  The teachings of the Word of God are non-negotiable and cannot be given away as bargaining chips in negotiating formal unity between Christians.  Neither can churches maintain unity merely by cultivating relationships with each other short of full institutional unity, for, as we've seen, institutional separation involves a rejection of each others' de jure legitimacy and authority.  Rather, the unity of the church must be sought by means of individuals and churches examining themselves and repenting of any sins or errors they maintain in order to come to agreement in doctrine and practice with each other on the basis of the truth, thus removing any need for continuing division.

Also, we see that the unity of the catholic church is not merely the unity of a genus to a species.  That is, the biblical picture is emphatically not that we have a general category of "church" which is then manifested or instantiated in "particular churches."  This is a congregationalist or semi-congregationalist view of the church.  The biblical, Reformed, Presbyterian view is that there is not merely an institutional, visible unity at the level of particular churches but at the level of the entire catholic church as well.  The universal church de jure, no less than particular congregations de jure, is to be a visible, institutional body governed by a tangible body of elders (made up of all the elders of all the churches throughout the worldwide church).  Particular churches are members of the catholic church not merely by being instantiations of a "church" genus, but by being local parts of a larger institutional body governed by the ecumenical eldership of the whole church.  When this aspect of what the "catholic visible church" means is not preserved, the presbyterian nature of the church has been fundamentally violated and mutilated.

For more on these practical implications of the presbyterian unity of the church, see here, as well as in general here.

May we all better recognize in our own day and age the blessings God wishes to bestow upon us through a full, biblical understanding and practice of what it means to be the one Body of Christ.

UPDATE 2/14/14:  Here is an article from Matthew Vogan which looks at some Old Testament evidence regarding the unity of the church.

One Lazy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church?

I have previously documented (see here, here, here, and here, for example) a number of ways modern Reformed people inclined towards semi-congregationalism try to escape the full implications of presbyterian church government, particularly the fact that when Presbyterian denominations are divided, there is a mutual charge of schism and a rejection of each others' de jure authority as churches.  Semi-congregationalists want to say that there can be multiple independent denominational churches that acknowledge each others' de jure authority.

Here is another argument someone might use to escape these facts:

I entirely agree that the church should be one in formal unity throughout the world.  As a matter of fact, it is.  All the true churches in the world are indeed in full communion with each other under mutually-binding councils.  The OPC, the PCA, the RPCNA, the FCC, the FCS, etc., are all united together under the possibility of a unifying worldwide ecumenical council.  So there really is no denominational separation, and therefore the denominations do not reject each others' de jure legitimacy and authority, nor do they accuse each other of schism.

OK.  So if all the denominations of true churches on the earth are indeed united together under mutually-binding councils, as presbyterianism requires, then why is there so much division among the churches?  Why so many differences in faith and practice?  Why hasn't a mutually-binding council been called to clean this mess up?

Well, although we are under common councils, yet those councils haven't met for a long time.  It's been ages since there has been a full ecumenical council, for example.  But the possibility is still there, so that's OK!

If this is truly the case, then I must say that all these denominations have been severely neglectful of their duty.  It is the duty of higher assemblies to help discipline and correct the lower assemblies.  If a session goes wrong in doctrine or practice, the presbytery is to step in and bring correction and discipline to fix the problem, and so on.  So if all these denominations are really united together, then they have shown quite clearly by their actions that they don't really care at all about the purity of the catholic church.  They care about purity within their own little groups, but they don't care enough about the rest of the Body of Christ to do what needs to be done on a broader scale.  When a liberal denomination professes to believe a certain confession of faith, but in practice completely ignores it and has no discipline whatsoever based on it, we rightly say that their profession to hold to that confession is a mere pretense.  A church with no discipline at all is a church that is not truly bound to what they say they hold to.  Well, I would say that the same thing would apply here.  A church which professes to be concerned for the unity and purity of the whole church and that it is quite possible to call a council of the whole church to deal with problems in these areas, but which never actually calls any councils to deal with these issues, shows that their profession is mere pretense.  They are not really unified; they merely profess to be unified while living dis-unified in practice.  So I would say that their profession makes no real difference and does not describe what they really are or what they really believe.

But, in fact, the various Reformed denominations don't claim to be part of one unified church under mutually-binding councils, so the whole argument is moot anyway.  The OPC (Orthodox Presbyterian Church), for example, acknowledges that the Reformed denominations exist in separation from each other and not in full communion (not even such a lazy full communion as described above):

E. The present division into separate denominations is because of unfaithfulness to God as expressed in beliefs, teaching, and living, on the part of both individuals in the church and the churches that are contrary to the Word of God.

F. We find ourselves in this sinful situation as we undertake to pursue the mandate to unity. There exists between us and all other churches a sinful disunity that demands reconciliation in a biblical way. This sin must be faced and removed so that true and full unity and fellowship of the church may be reached.  (Biblical Principles of the Unity of the Church)

The visible unity of the Body of Christ, though not altogether destroyed, is greatly obscured by the division of the Christian church into different groups or denominations. In such denominations Christians exercise a fellowship toward each other in doctrine, worship, and order that they do not exercise toward other Christians.  (OPC Form of Government, Chapter IV)

The FPCS (Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland) points out the same thing.  In answer to the question, "Why are you a separate church?" the FPCS responds:

We take the Bible alone as our guide to Doctrine, Worship and Practice. We preach the Gospel of God's sovereign and free grace. . . . In order to safeguard these precious truths, we are separate from other Presbyterian churches which have compromised on these matters.  (Frequently Asked Questions)

Later in the same document, it adds:

Being a Presbyterian church we believe in the unity of congregations in a Presbyterian structure. We do not believe in the spurious unity of the modern ecumenical movement which minimises doctrinal difference between the Protestant churches and which is leading towards re-union with Roman Catholicism under the pope of Rome. We believe in the unity of all Spirit-taught, born-again, believers in Christ throughout the world, and that they ought to be united in one Presbyterian Church.

Therefore, the inconvenient fact remains:  Divided Presbyterian denominations, if they are truly presbyterian, are rejecting each others' de jure legitimacy and authority and accusing each other of being schismatic.  There is no other way to read the situation without abandoning presbyterian church government.